Kitchen Sinks, Kitchen Copper Sinks

ABOUT COPPER SINKS:
Taking Advantage of the Unique Qualities of Copper for Copper Sinks for a Beautiful Home

Think copper sinks are cool? Apparently a lot of other homeowners think so, too. Copper sinks are all the rage in kitchens and baths as decor mavens look for something new beyond the stainless or porcelain sinks that dominate today's showrooms.

Homeowners and interior designers are excited about the possibilities that copper sinks offer. They are a gorgeous alternative to porcelain, with some of the sophistication of glass, yet provide a more organic and antiqued appearance. The luster of copper interests many decorators in its richly textured surface. You can choose to keep the copper especially shiny with a liquid metal polish, or let it age.

Why copper? For one, the dark patinas complement the trend toward oil-rubbed bronze hardware and deeper, richer natural countertop stones such as granite. For a designer look in your kitchen or bath, you might consider copper for sinks, tubs, or counter tops. The warm tones of copper would be appropriate for a French Country or Victorian style kitchen, a butler’s pantry sink, or counter tops for a kitchen or bar area.

A copper sink or bathtub is a natural work of art for your home and you should love the look. There are many pre-made designs available in home design stores or online or you can design a custom copper sink. Whatever you choose, it will be helpful to keep the following information in mind.

Did you know copper is more hygienic than stainless steel. Copper has a natural aversion to bacterial growth. Its antibacterial properties kill dangerous bacteria such as E. Coli much more rapidly than do stainless steel or porcelain surfaces when cleaned regularly and as a supplement to routine cleaning and disinfection programs. Copper has antibacterial qualities so there is no need to disinfect a sink with harsh chemicals or abrasive cleaners. Learn about Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) facts on using copper in sinks and other items.

Antimicrobial Efficacy even for copper alloys are amazing. The U.S. EPA-approved testing demonstrates that, when cleaned regularly, Antimicrobial Copper Alloys kill 99.9% of the organisms listed below within two hours.

Copper products are easy to maintain. Simply use a mild soap and water and a soft cloth for drying. Because copper is a living material, the patina will naturally change over time. To retard the change and to aid in water run off, it is recommended that the sink be waxed or oiled periodically. if acidic foods that are allowed to sit on a copper product will cause shiny patches of uneven patina. Remember that copper is a living material and will naturally renew itself over time. Leave the area free of wax or oil to allow the copper to re-oxidize.

Copper is also malleable. Should your sink arrive with a bent edge, it can be hammered back into shape with little effort. Protect the surface with a soft cloth and use a rubber mallet to GENTLY hammer the edge back into shape. To take out waves in a copper piece one can simply place a piece of 2X4 in between parts and GENTLY push up on the copper. Copper is a metal that is known for possessing both ductile and malleable properties. When thinking in terms of the strength of copper, it is important to keep both of these characteristics in mind.

When it comes to being a malleable metal, few substances can compare to copper. Essentially, a malleable substance can be stretched, shaped, and bent without experiencing any cracking or breakage. When it comes to producing products made of metal components such as piping, this can be very important. Unlike some plastics and metals such as iron that can become brittle under certain processes, copper will give without breaking, making it very easy to work with. The finished product will often be easy to install and also easy to maintain, since copper does not have a tendency to corrode with the ease of some other metals.

As both a malleable and ductile metal, various types of copper and copper alloys are the obvious choices for many different types of products. These may include a wide range of kitchen tools and appliances, such as cookware and teapots. Copper piping works well for many aspects of home plumbing as well as systems in public buildings. Copper plating is often used for roofs and other outside portions of structures. Easy to work with and long lasting, copper is indeed a very strong metal.

Metal Thickness (Gauge) Is Important. Metal thickness is measured by it's "gauge". Lower numbers mean thicker metal (14 gauge is thicker than 20 gauge). Copper is a soft metal and thicker gauge sinks will stand up to use and abuse better than thinner gauges. Think copper kitchen sink here -- and the chances for dropped dishes and such. A 14 gauge sink is robust, 16 gauge is good. Less than that and you might be more susceptible to dents and dings.

Regardless of whether you're interested in copper when choosing new kitchen sinks or for a new bathrooom sink, there are designs to suit virtually any style and situation.

ABOUT COPPER
Appearance
reddish/orange metallic luster Native copper (~4 cm in size)
General properties
Name, symbol, number	copper, Cu, 29
Element category	transition metal
Group, period, block	11, 4, d
Standard atomic weight	63.546(3) g·mol-1
Electron configuration	[Ar] 3d10 4s1
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 1 (Image)
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	8.94 g·cm-3
Liquid density at m.p.	8.02 g·cm-3
Melting point	1357.77 K, 1084.62 °C, 1984.32 °F
Boiling point	2835 K, 2562 °C, 4643 °F
Heat of fusion	13.26 kJ·mol-1
Heat of vaporization	300.4 kJ·mol-1
Specific heat capacity	(25 °C) 24.440 J·mol-1·K-1
Vapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T/K 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	+1, +2, +3, +4 (mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity	1.90 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies (more)	1st: 745.5 kJ·mol-1
	2nd: 1957.9 kJ·mol-1
	3rd: 3555 kJ·mol-1
Atomic radius	128 pm
Covalent radius	132±4 pm
Van der Waals radius	140 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure	face-centered cubic
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity	(20 °C) 16.78 n?·m
Thermal conductivity	(300 K) 401 W·m-1·K-1
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 16.5 µm·m-1·K-1
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(r.t.) (annealed) 3810 m·s-1
Young's modulus	110–128 GPa
Shear modulus	48 GPa
Bulk modulus	140 GPa
Poisson ratio	0.34
Mohs hardness	3.0
Vickers hardness	369 MPa
Brinell hardness	874 MPa
CAS registry number	7440-50-8
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of copper
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 63Cu 69.15% 63Cu is stable with 34 neutrons 65Cu 30.85% 65Cu is stable with 36 neutrons

Periodic table
H																															He
Li	Be																									B	C	N	O	F	Ne
Na	Mg																									Al	Si	P	S	Cl	Ar
K	Ca	Sc															Ti	V	Cr	Mn	Fe	Co	Ni	Cu	Zn	Ga	Ge	As	Se	Br	Kr
Rb	Sr	Y															Zr	Nb	Mo	Tc	Ru	Rh	Pd	Ag	Cd	In	Sn	Sb	Te	I	Xe
Cs	Ba	La	Ce	Pr	Nd	Pm	Sm	Eu	Gd	Tb	Dy	Ho	Er	Tm	Yb	Lu	Hf	Ta	W	Re	Os	Ir	Pt	Au	Hg	Tl	Pb	Bi	Po	At	Rn
Fr	Ra	Ac	Th	Pa	U	Np	Pu	Am	Cm	Bk	Cf	Es	Fm	Md	No	Lr	Rf	Db	Sg	Bh	Hs	Mt	Ds	Rg	Cn	Uut	Uuq	Uup	Uuh	Uus	Uuo
Uue	Ubn
Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Lanthanoids Actinoids Transition metals Other metals Metalloids Other nonmetals Halogens Noble gases

COPPER COMPOUNDS: CuBr · CuBr2 · CuCN · CuCO3 · CuCl · CuCl2 · CuF · CuF2 · CuI · Cu(NO3)2 · CuN6 · CuO · Cu(OH)2 · CuS · CuSO4 · Cu2O · Cu2S · Cu3(AsO4)2 · Cu3P · Cu5Si

Copper disc made by continuous casting, etched.

Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable and a freshly-exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys.

Copper metal and alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum. There may be insufficient reserves to sustain current high rates of copper consumption. Some countries, such as Chile and the United States, still have sizable reserves of the metal which are extracted through large open pit mines.

Copper compounds are known in several oxidation states, usually 2+, where they often impart blue or green colors to natural minerals such as turquoise and have been used historically widely as pigments. Copper as both metal and pigmented salt, has a significant presence in decorative art. Copper 2+ ions are soluble in water, where they function at low concentration as bacteriostatic substances and fungicides. For this reason, copper metal can be used as an anti-germ surface that can add to the anti-bacterial and antimicrobial features of buildings such as hospitals. In sufficient amounts, copper salts can be poisonous to higher organisms as well. However, despite universal toxicity at high concentrations, the 2+ copper ion at lower concentrations is an essential trace nutrient to all higher plant and animal life. In animals, including humans, it is found widely in tissues, with concentration in liver, muscle, and bone. It functions as a co-factor in various enzymes and in copper-based pigments.

History

Copper Age

Copper, as native copper, is one of the few metals to occur naturally as an un-compounded mineral. Copper was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record, and has a history of use that is at least 10,000 years old. Some estimates of copper's discovery place this event around 9000 BC in the Middle East. A copper pendant was found in what is now northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. It is probable that gold and meteoritic iron were the only metals used by humans before copper. By 5000 BC, there are signs of copper smelting: the refining of copper from simple copper compounds such as malachite or azurite. Among archaeological sites in Anatolia, Çatal Höyük (~6000 BC) features native copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but no smelted copper. Can Hasan (~5000 BC) had access to smelted copper but the oldest smelted copper artifact found (a copper chisel from the chalcolithic site of Prokuplje in Serbia) has pre-dated Can Hasan by 500 years. The smelting facilities in the Balkans appear to be more advanced than the Turkish forges found at a later date, so it is quite probable that copper smelting originated in the Balkans. Investment casting was realized in 4500–4000 BCE in Southeast Asia.

Ancient Copper ingot from Zakros, Crete is shaped in the form of an animal skin typical for that era.

Copper smelting appears to have been developed independently in several parts of the world. In addition to its development in the Balkans by 5500 BC, it was developed in China before 2800 BC, in the Andes around 2000 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa around 900 AD. Copper is found extensively in the Indus Valley Civilization by the 3rd millennium BC. In Europe, Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved male dated to 3300–3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure. High levels of arsenic in his hair suggest he was involved in copper smelting. Over the course of centuries, experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; for example, knowledge of copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.

In the Americas production in the Old Copper Complex, located in present day Michigan and Wisconsin, was dated back to between 6000 to 3000 BC.

Bronze Age

Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass or bronze was practiced soon after the discovery of copper itself. There exist copper and bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities that date to 3000 BC, and Egyptian artifacts of copper and copper-tin alloys nearly as old. In one pyramid, a copper plumbing system was found that is 5000 years old. The Egyptians found that adding a small amount of tin made the metal easier to cast, so copper-tin (bronze) alloys were found in Egypt almost as soon as copper was found. Very important sources of copper in the Levant were located in Timna valley (Negev, now in southern Israel) and Faynan (biblical Punon, Jordan).

By 2000 BC, Europe was using bronze. The use of bronze became so widespread in Europe approximately from 2500 BC to 600 BC that it has been named the Bronze Age. The transitional period in certain regions between the preceding Neolithic period and the Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic ("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper tools being used alongside stone tools. Brass (copper-zinc alloy) was known to the Greeks, but only became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman empire.

During the Bronze Age, one copper mine at Great Orme in North Wales, extended for a depth of 70 meters. At Alderley Edge in Cheshire, carbon dates have established mining at around 2280 to 1890 BC (at 95% probability).

Antiquity and Middle Ages

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, Negev Desert, Israel.

In Greek the metal was known by the name chalkos. Copper was a very important resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it became known as aes Cyprium (aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys such as bronze and other metals, and Cyprium because so much of it was mined in Cyprus). From this, the phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the English copper. Copper was associated with the goddess Aphrodite/Venus in mythology and alchemy, owing to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to the goddess. In astrology, alchemy the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with seven metals also known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.

Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd - 2nd century B.C. In North America, copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.

Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around the beginning of the first millennium AD. Copper technology proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Africa's major location for copper reserves is Zambia. Copper burial ornamentals dated from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early 1900s. Australian copper artifacts exist, but they appear only after the arrival of the Europeans; the aboriginal culture apparently did not develop their own metallurgical abilities.

Crucial in the metallurgical and technological worlds, copper has also played an important cultural role, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries B.C. used copper lumps as money. At first, just the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins, made from a copper-zinc alloy, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys.

The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. Corinthian bronze was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun. In ancient India (before 1000 B.C.), copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 B.C.) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and as time passed, (~1500 B.C.) for headaches, burns, and itching. Hippocrates (~400 B.C.) used copper to treat leg ulcers associated with varicose veins. Ancient Aztecs fought sore throats by gargling with copper mixtures.

Copper is also the part of many rich stories and legends, such as that of Iraq's Baghdad Battery. Copper cylinders soldered to lead, which date back to 248 B.C. to 226 A.D, resemble a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this may have been the first battery. This claim has so far not been substantiated.

The Bible also refers to the importance of copper: "Men know how to mine silver and refine gold, to dig iron from the earth and melt copper from stone" (Job. 28:1–2).

Modern period

The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that operated for a millennium from the 10th century to 1992. It produced as much as two thirds of Europe's copper needs in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden's wars during that time. It was referred to as the nation's treasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.

Throughout history, copper's use in art has extended far beyond currency. Vannoccio Biringuccio, Giorgio Vasari and Benvenuto Cellini are three Renaissance sculptors from the mid 1500s, notable for their work with bronze. From about 1560 to about 1775, thin sheets of copper were commonly used as a canvas for paintings. Silver plated copper was used in the pre-photograph known as the daguerreotype. The Statue of Liberty, dedicated on October 28, 1886, was constructed of copper thought to have come from French-owned mines in Norway.

Plating was a technology that started in the mid 1600s in some areas. One common use for copper plating, widespread in the 1700s, was the sheathing of ships' hulls. Copper sheathing could be used to protect wooden hulled ships from algae, and from the shipworm "Teredo navalis", a saltwater clam. The ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest to have this protection. The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant starting its production in 1876.

In 1801 Paul Revere established America's first copper rolling mill in Canton, Massachusetts. In the early 1800s, it was discovered that copper wire could be used as a conductor, but it wasn't until 1990 that copper, in oxide form, was discovered for use as a superconducting material. The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy of copper in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic weight. Around then it was also discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g. tin) would affect the tones of bells, allowing for a variety of rich sounds, leading to bell casting, another common use for copper and its alloys.

Flash smelting, was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at the Harjavalta plant in 1949. The process makes smelting more energy efficient and is today used for 50% of the world’s primary copper production.

Copper has been pivotal in the economic and sociological worlds, notably disputes involving copper mines. The 1906 Cananea Strike in Mexico dealt with issues of work organization. The Teniente copper mine (1904-1951) raised political issues about capitalism and class structure. Japan's largest copper mine, the Ashio mine, was the site of a riot in 1907. The Arizona miners' strike of 1938 dealt with American labor issues including the "right to strike".

Characteristics

Color

Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange incandescence color.

Copper has a reddish, orangish, or brownish color because a thin layer of tarnish (including oxides) gradually forms on its surface when gases (especially oxygen) in the air react with it. But pure copper, when fresh, is actually a pinkish or peachy metal. Copper, caesium and gold are the only three elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver. The usual gray color of metals depends on their "electron sea" that is capable of absorbing and re-emitting photons over a wide range of frequencies. Copper has its characteristic color because of its unique band structure. By Madelung's rule the 4s subshell should be filled before electrons are placed in the 3d subshell but copper is an exception to the rule with only one electron in the 4s subshell instead of two. The energy of a photon of blue or violet light is sufficient for a d band electron to absorb it and transition to the half-full s band. Thus the light reflected by copper is missing some blue/violet components and appears red. This phenomenon is shared with gold which has a corresponding 5s/4d structure. In its liquefied state, a pure copper surface without ambient light appears somewhat greenish, a characteristic shared with gold. When liquid copper is in bright ambient light, it retains some of its pinkish luster. When copper is burnt in oxygen it gives off a black oxide.

Group 11 of the periodic table

Copper occupies the same family of the periodic table as silver and gold, since they each have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled electron shell which forms metallic bonds. This similarity in electron structure makes them similar in many characteristics. All have very high thermal and electrical conductivity, and all are malleable metals. Among pure metals at room temperature, copper has the second highest electrical and thermal conductivity, after silver.

Occurrence

Native copper, ca. 4×2 cm.

Copper can be found as native copper in mineral form (for example, in Michigan's Keewenaw Peninsula). It is a polycrystal, with the largest single crystals measuring 4.4x3.2x3.2 cm³. Minerals such as the sulfides: chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂), bornite (Cu₅FeS₄), covellite (CuS), chalcocite (Cu₂S) are sources of copper, as are the carbonates: azurite (Cu₃(CO₃)₂(OH)₂) and malachite (Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂) and the oxide: cuprite (Cu₂O).

Mechanical properties

Copper is easily worked, being both ductile and malleable. The ease with which it can be drawn into wire makes it useful for electrical work in addition to its excellent electrical properties. Copper can be machined, although it is usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts, such as threaded components, to get really good machinability characteristics. Good thermal conduction makes it useful for heatsinks and in heat exchangers. Copper has good corrosion resistance, but not as good as gold. It has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can also be welded, although best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding.

Copper is normally supplied, as with nearly all metals for industrial and commercial use, in a fine grained polycrystalline form. Polycrystalline metals have greater strength than monocrystalline forms, and the difference is greater for smaller grain (crystal) sizes. The reason is due to the inability of stress dislocations in the crystal structure to cross the grain boundaries.

Electrical properties

Copper electrical busbars distributing power to a large building.

At 59.6 × 10⁶ S/m copper has the second highest electrical conductivity of any element, just after silver. This high value is due to virtually all the valence electrons (one per atom) taking part in conduction. The resulting free electrons in the copper amount to a huge charge density of 13.6x10⁹ C/m³. This high charge density is responsible for the rather slow drift velocity of currents in copper cable (drift velocity may be calculated as the ratio of current density to charge density). For instance, at a current density of 5x10⁶ A/m² (typically, the maximum current density present in household wiring and grid distribution) the drift velocity is just a little over 1/3 mm/s.

Corrosion

In contact with other metals

Copper should not be in direct mechanical contact with metals of different electropotential (for example, a copper pipe joined to an iron pipe), especially in the presence of moisture, as the completion of an electrical circuit (for instance through the common ground) will cause the juncture to act as an electrochemical cell (like a single cell of a battery). The weak electrical currents themselves are harmless but the electrochemical reaction will cause the conversion of the iron to other compounds, eventually destroying the functionality of the union. This problem is usually solved in plumbing by separating copper pipe from iron pipe with some non-conducting segment (usually plastic or rubber).

In solutions

Copper does not react with water, but it slowly reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming a layer of brown-black copper oxide. In contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air, this oxide layer stops the further, bulk corrosion. A green layer of copper carbonate, called verdigris, can often be seen on old copper constructions, such as the Statue of Liberty.

Copper reacts with hydrogen sulfide- and sulfide-containing solutions, forming various copper sulfides on its surface. In sulfide-containing solutions, copper is less noble than hydrogen and will corrode. This is observed in everyday life when copper metal surfaces tarnish after exposure to air containing sulfur compounds.

Copper is slowly dissolved in oxygen-containing ammonia solutions because ammonia forms water-soluble complexes with copper. Copper reacts with a combination of oxygen and hydrochloric acid to form a series of copper chlorides. Copper(II) chloride (green/blue) when boiled with copper metal undergoes a symproportionation reaction to form white copper(I) chloride.

In pure water, or acidic or alkali conditions. Note that copper in neutral water is more noble than hydrogen.

In water containing sulfide

In 10 M ammonia solution

In a chloride solution

Germicidal effect

Copper is germicidal, via the oligodynamic effect. For example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many bacteria within a period of eight hours. Antimicrobial properties of copper are effective against MRSA, Escherichia coli and other pathogens. In colder temperature, longer time is required to kill bacteria.

Copper has the intrinsic ability to kill a variety of potentially harmful pathogens. On February 29, 2008, the United States EPA registered 275 alloys, containing greater than 65% nominal copper content, as antimicrobial materials. Registered alloys include pure copper, an assortment of brasses and bronzes, and additional alloys. EPA-sanctioned tests using Good Laboratory Practices were conducted in order to obtain several antimicrobial claims valid against: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli O157: H7 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The EPA registration allows the manufacturers of these copper alloys to legally make public health claims as to the health effects of these materials. Several of the aforementioned bacteria are responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquired infections contracted each year in the United States. Frequently touched surfaces in hospitals and public facilities harbor bacteria and increase the risk for contracting infections. Covering touch surfaces with copper alloys can help reduce microbial contamination associated with hospital-acquired infections on these surfaces.

Isotopes

Copper has 29 distinct isotopes ranging in atomic mass from 52 to 80. Two of these, ⁶³Cu and ⁶⁵Cu, are stable and occur naturally, with ⁶³Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper.

The other 27 isotopes are radioactive and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these is ⁶⁷Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. The least stable is ⁵⁴Cu with a half-life of approximately 75 ns. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo ?⁺ decay, while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo ?^- decay. ⁶⁴Cu decays by both ?⁺ and ?^-.

⁶⁸Cu, ⁶⁹Cu, ⁷¹Cu, ⁷²Cu, and ⁷⁶Cu each have one metastable isomer. ⁷⁰Cu has two isomers, making a total of 7 distinct isomers. The most stable of these is ^68mCu with a half-life of 3.75 minutes. The least stable is ^69mCu with a half-life of 360 ns.

Production

Chuquicamata (Chile). The largest open pit copper mines in the world.

Copper output in 2005

Output

Most copper ore is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Examples include: Chuquicamata in Chile and El Chino Mine in New Mexico. The average abundance of copper found within crustal rocks is approximately 68 ppm by mass, and 22 ppm by atoms. In 2005, Chile was the top mine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed by the USA, Indonesia and Peru, reports the British Geological Survey.

Reserves

Copper Prices 2003 - 2008 in USD

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As with many natural resources, total amount of copper on Earth is vast (around 10¹⁴ tons just in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, or about 5 million years worth at the current rate of extraction). However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable, given present-day prices and technologies. Various estimates of existing copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.

Copper is a finite resource, but, unlike oil, it is not destroyed and therefore can be recycled. Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world.

As consumption in India and China increases, copper supplies are becoming scarcer. The copper price has quintupled from the 60-year low in 1999, rising from US$0.60 per pound (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 to US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006, where it dropped to US$2.40 per pound (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007 then rebounded to US$3.50 per pound (US$7.71/kg = £3.89 = €5.00) in April 2007. By early February 2009, however, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs had left copper prices at US$1.51 per pound.

The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries (CIPEC), defunct since 1992, once tried to play a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil, but never achieved the same influence, not least because the second-largest producer, the United States, was never a member. Formed in 1967, its principal members were Chile, Peru, Zaire, and Zambia.

Methods

Applications

Copper is malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of both heat and electricity.

The purity of copper is expressed as 4N for 99.99% pure or 7N for 99.99999% pure. The numeral gives the number of nines after the decimal point when expressed as a decimal (e.g. 4N means 0.9999, or 99.99%). Copper is often too soft for its applications, so it is incorporated in numerous alloys. For example, brass is a copper-zinc alloy, and bronze is a copper-tin alloy.

It is used extensively, in products such as:

Piping

Assorted copper fittings.

• including water supply.
• used extensively in refrigeration and air conditioning equipment because of its ease of fabrication and soldering, as well as high conductivity to heat.

Electrical applications

• Copper wire.
• Oxygen-free copper.
• Electromagnets.
• Printed circuit boards.
• Lead free solder, alloyed with tin.
• Electrical machines, especially electromagnetic motors, generators and transformers.
• Electrical relays, electrical busbars and electrical switches.
• Vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and the magnetrons in microwave ovens.
• Wave guides for microwave radiation.
• Integrated circuits, increasingly replacing aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity.
• As a material in the manufacture of computer heat sinks, as a result of its superior heat dissipation capacity to aluminium.

Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coated with patina

Architecture and industry

• Copper has been used as water-proof roofing material since ancient times, giving many old buildings their greenish roofs and domes. Initially copper oxide forms, replaced by cuprous and cupric sulfide, and finally by copper carbonate. The final carbonate patina (termed verdigris) is highly resistant to corrosion.
• Statuary: The Statue of Liberty, for example, contains 179,220 pounds (81.3 tonnes) of copper.
• Alloyed with nickel, e.g. cupronickel and Monel, used as corrosive resistant materials in shipbuilding.
• Watt's steam engine firebox due to superior heat dissipation.
• Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion of structures during restoration of damage due to dry rot.
• Copper wires may be placed over non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss. (Zinc may also be used for this purpose.)

Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant

• Copper is used to prevent a building being directly struck by lightning. High above the roof, copper spikes (lightning rods) are connected to a very thick copper cable which leads to a large metal plate underneath the ground. The voltage is dispersed throughout the ground harmlessly, instead of destroying the main structure.

Household products

• Copper plumbing fittings and compression tubes.
• Doorknobs and other fixtures in houses.
• Roofing, guttering, and rainspouts on buildings.
• In cookware, such as frying pans.
• Some older flatware: (knives, forks, spoons) contains some copper if made from Electroplated Nickel silver (EPNS).
• Sterling silver, if it is to be used in dinnerware, must contain a few percent copper.
• Copper water heating cylinders
• Copper Range Hoods
• Copper Bath Tubs
• Copper Counters
• Copper Sinks
• Copper slug tape

Coinage

• As a component of coins, often as cupronickel alloy, or some form of brass or bronze.
• Coins in the following countries all contain copper: European Union (Euro), United States, United Kingdom (sterling), Australia and New Zealand.
• U.S. Nickels are 75.0% copper by weight and only 25.0% nickel.

Biomedical applications

• As a biostatic surface in hospitals, and to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels, originally used pure, but superseded by Muntz metal. Bacteria will not grow on a copper surface because it is biostatic. Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease is suppressed by copper tubing in air-conditioning systems.
• Copper(II) sulfate is used as a fungicide and as algae control in domestic lakes and ponds. It is used in gardening powders and sprays to kill mildew.
• Copper-62-PTSM, a complex containing radioactive copper-62, is used as a positron emission tomography radiotracer for heart blood flow measurements.
• Copper-64 can be used as a positron emission tomography radiotracer for medical imaging. When complexed with a chelate it can be used to treat cancer through radiation therapy.

Chemical applications

• Compounds, such as Fehling's solution, have applications in chemistry.
• As a component in ceramic glazes, and to color glass.

Other

• Musical instruments, especially brass instruments and timpani.
• Class D fire extinguisher, used in powder form to extinguish lithium fires by covering the burning metal and performing similar to a heat sink.
• Textile fibers to create antimicrobial protective fabrics.
• Weaponry:
  • Small arms ammunition commonly uses copper as a jacketing material around the bullet core.
  • Copper is also commonly used as a case material, in the form of brass.
  • Copper is used as a liner in Shaped charge armour-piercing warheads and demolition explosives (blade).
• Copper is frequently used in electroplating, usually as a base for other metals such as Nickel.

Alloys

Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important historical and contemporary uses. Speculum metal and bronze are alloys of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Monel metal, also called cupronickel, is an alloy of copper and nickel. While the metal "bronze" usually refers to copper-tin alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper, such as aluminium bronze, silicon bronze, and manganese bronze. Copper is one of the most important constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.

Compounds

Copper(I) oxide powder

Common oxidation states of copper include the less stable copper(I) state, Cu⁺; and the more stable copper(II) state, Cu²⁺, which forms blue or blue-green salts and solutions. Under unusual conditions, a 3+ state and even an extremely rare 4+ state can be obtained. Using old nomenclature for the naming of salts, copper(I) is called cuprous, and copper(II) is cupric. In oxidation copper is mildly basic.

Copper(II) carbonate is green from which arises the unique appearance of copper-clad roofs or domes on some buildings. Copper(II) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate which is perhaps the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used as a fungicide, known as Bordeaux mixture.

There are two stable copper oxides, copper(II) oxide (CuO) and copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O). Copper oxides are used to make yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa₂Cu₃O_7-?) or YBCO which forms the basis of many unconventional superconductors.

• Copper(I) compounds: copper(I) chloride, copper(I) bromide, copper(I) iodide, copper(I) oxide.

• Copper(II) compounds: copper(II) acetate, copper(II) carbonate, copper(II) chloride, copper(II) hydroxide, copper(II) nitrate, copper(II) oxide, copper(II) sulfate, copper(II) sulfide, copper(II) tetrafluoroborate, copper(II) triflate.

• Copper(III) compounds, rare: potassium hexafluorocuprate (K₃CuF₆)

• Copper(IV) compounds, extremely rare: caesium hexafluorocuprate (Cs₂CuF₆)

Tests for copper(II) ion

Adding an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide will form a blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide. The ionic equation is:

Cu²⁺ (aq) + 2 OH^- (aq) ? Cu(OH)₂ (s)

The full equation shows that the reaction is due to hydroxide ions deprotonating the hexaaquacopper(II) complex:

[Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺ (aq) + 2 OH^-(aq) ? Cu(H₂O)₄(OH)₂ (s) + 2 H₂O (l)

Adding ammonium hydroxide (aqueous ammonia) causes the same precipitate to form. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming a deep blue ammonia complex, tetraamminecopper(II):

Cu(H₂O)₄(OH)₂ (s) + 4 NH₃ (aq) ? [Cu(H₂O)₂(NH₃)₄]²⁺ (aq) + 2 H₂O (l) + 2 OH^- (aq)

A more delicate test than ammonia is potassium ferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper salts.

Biological role

Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef or lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados and wheat bran.

Copper is essential in all plants and animals. The human body normally contains copper at a level of about 1.4 to 2.1 mg for each kg of body weight. Copper is distributed widely in the body and occurs in liver, muscle and bone. Copper is transported in the bloodstream on a plasma protein called ceruloplasmin. When copper is first absorbed in the gut it is transported to the liver bound to albumin. Copper metabolism and excretion is controlled delivery of copper to the liver by ceruloplasmin, where it is excreted in bile.

Copper is found in a variety of enzymes, including the copper centers of cytochrome c oxidase and the enzyme superoxide dismutase (containing copper and zinc). In addition to its enzymatic roles, copper is used for biological electron transport. The blue copper proteins that participate in electron transport include azurin and plastocyanin. The name "blue copper" comes from their intense blue color arising from a ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) absorption band around 600 nm.

Most molluscs and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab use the copper-containing pigment hemocyanin rather than iron-containing hemoglobin for oxygen transport, so their blood is blue when oxygenated rather than red.

It is believed that zinc and copper compete for absorption in the digestive tract so that a diet that is excessive in one of these minerals may result in a deficiency in the other. The RDA for copper in normal healthy adults is 0.9 mg/day. On the other hand, professional research on the subject recommends 3.0 mg/day. Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can often produce anemia-like symptoms. In humans, the symptoms of Wilson's disease are caused by an accumulation of copper in body tissues.

Chronic copper depletion leads to abnormalities in metabolism of fats, high triglycerides, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fatty liver disease and poor melanin and dopamine synthesis causing depression and sunburn. Food rich in copper should be eaten away from any milk or egg proteins as they block absorption.

Toxicity

Toxicity can occur from eating acidic food that has been cooked with copper cookware. Cirrhosis of the liver in children (Indian Childhood Cirrhosis) has been linked to boiling milk in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states that recent studies suggest that a genetic defect is associated with this cirrhosis. Since copper is actively excreted by the normal body, chronic copper toxicosis in humans without a genetic defect in copper handling has not been demonstrated. However, large amounts (gram quantities) of copper salts taken in suicide attempts have produced acute copper toxicity in normal humans. Equivalent amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals

Miscellaneous hazards

The metal, when powdered, is a fire hazard. At concentrations higher than 1 mg/L, copper can stain clothes and items washed in water.

Recycling

Copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality whether in a raw state or contained in a manufactured product. Copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. It is estimated that 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today. Common grades of copper for recycling are:

• Bare bright - very clean and pure copper wire usually 12 AWG or larger that has insulation and any tarnish removed
• #1 copper - pipe with a new appearance and free of any foreign material
• #2 copper - pipe with corrosion or foreign material and small gauge wire with no insulation

Insulated wire is also commonly recycled once the insulation is stripped off.

High purity copper scrap is directly melted in a furnace and the molten copper is deoxidized and cast into billets, or ingots. Lower purity scrap is usually refined to attain the desired purity level by an electroplating process in which the copper scrap is dissolved into a bath of sulfuric acid and then electroplated out of the solution.

See also

• Copper mining and extraction:
  • Native copper
  • Companies: Anaconda Copper, Antofagasta PLC, Codelco, also Category:Copper mining companies
  • Copper extraction techniques, also Smelter
  • Peak copper
• Electroplating
• Pipe corrosion and damage: Cold water pitting of copper tube, Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes
• Copper theft :Metal theft, also Operation Tremor

ABOUT SINKS

A generic bathroom sink.

In plumbing, a sink or basin is a bowl-shaped fixture that is used for washing hands or small objects. In American plumbing parlance, a bathroom sink is known as a lavatory.

Sinks generally have taps (faucets) that supply hot and cold water and may include a spray feature to be used for faster rinsing. They also include a drain to remove used water; this drain may itself include a strainer and/or shut-off device and an overflow-prevention device. Sinks may also have an integrated soap dispenser.

When a sink becomes stopped-up or clogged, a person will often resort to use a chemical drain cleaner or a plunger, though most professional plumbers will attack the clog with a drain auger (often called a "plumber's snake").

Materials

Sinks are made of many different materials. These include:

Bathroom Stainless Steel Vessel Sink standing on a Wood Surface. Brazilian creative design.

• Stainless steel
• Enamel over steel or cast iron
• Ceramic
• Marble
• Plastic
• Soapstone
• Concrete
• Terrazzo
• Totianota
• Wood
• Stone
• Copper
• Glass
• Granite

Stainless steel is commonly used in kitchens and commercial applications because it represents a good trade-off between cost, usability, durability, and ease of cleaning. Most stainless steel sinks are made by drawing a sheet of stainless steel over a die. Some very deep sinks are fabricated by welding. Stainless steel sinks will not be damaged by hot or cold objects and resist damage from impacts. One disadvantage of stainless steel is that, being made of thin metal, they tend to be noisier than most other sink materials, although better sinks apply a heavy coating of vibration-damping material to the underside of the sink.

Enamel over cast iron is a popular material for kitchen and bathroom sinks. Heavy and durable, these sinks can also be manufactured in a very wide range of shapes and colors. Like stainless steel, they are very resistant to hot or cold objects, but they can be damaged by sharp impacts and once the glass surface is breached, the underlying cast iron will often corrode, spalling off more of the glass. Aggressive cleaning will dull the surface, leading to more dirt accumulation. Enamel over steel is a similar-appearing but far less rugged and less cost-effective alternative.

Solid ceramic sinks have many of the same characteristics as enamel over cast iron, but without the risk of surface damage leading to corrosion.

Plastic sinks come in several basic forms:

• Inexpensive sinks are simply injection-molded thermoplastics. These are often deep, free-standing sinks used in laundry rooms. Subject to damage by hot or sharp objects, the principal virtue of these sinks is their low cost.

• High-end acrylic drop-in (lowered into the countertop) and undermount (attached from the bottom) sinks are becoming more popular, although they tend to be easily damaged by hard objects - like scouring a cast iron frying pan in the sink.

• Plastic sinks may also be made from the same materials used to form "solid surface" countertops. These sinks are durable, attractive, and can often be molded with an integrated countertop or joined to a separate countertop in a seamless fashion, leading to no sink-to-countertop joint or a very smooth sink-to-countertop joint that can not trap dirt or germs. These sinks are subject to damage by hot objects but damaged areas can sometimes be sanded-down to expose undamaged material.

Soapstone sinks were once common, but today tend to be used only in very-high-end applications or applications that must resist caustic chemicals that would damage more-conventional sinks.

Wood sinks are from the early days of sinks and baths were made from natural teak with no additional finishing. Teak is chosen because of its natural waterproofing properties – it has been used for hundreds of years in the marine industry for this reason. Teak also has natural antiseptic properties, which is a bonus for its use in baths and sinks.

Glass sinks: A current trend in bathroom design is the handmade glass sink (often referred to as a vessel sink) which has become fashionable for wealthy homeowners.

Stone sinks have been used for ages. Some of the more popular stones used are: marble, travertine, onyx, granite.

Glass, concrete, and terrazzo sinks are usually designed for their aesthetic appeal and can be obtained in a wide variety of unusual shapes and colors such as floral shapes. Concrete and terrazzo are occasionally also used in very-heavy-duty applications such as janitorial sinks.

Styles

Sinks are available in many colours

A number of people can use this sink at the same time.

Self-rimming (top-mount) sinks sit in appropriately-shaped holes roughly cut in the countertop (or substrate material) using a jigsaw or other cutter appropriate to the material at hand and are suspended by their rim. The rim then inherently forms a fairly close seal with the top surface of the countertop, especially when the sink is clamped into the hole from below.

Bottom-mount or under-mount sinks are installed below the countertop surface. The edge of the countertop material is exposed at the hole created for the sink (and so must be a carefully finished edge rather than a rough cut). The sink is then clamped to the bottom of the material from below. Especially for bottom-mount sinks, silicone-based sealants are usually used to assure a waterproof joint between the sink and the countertop material. The advantage of an "under-mount" sink is that it gives a contemporary look to the kitchen but the disadvantages are extra cost in both the sink and the counter top. Also, no matter how carefully the cut out is made, the result is either a small ledge or overhang at the interface with the sink. This can create an environment for catching dirt and allowing germs to grow.

Solid-surface plastic materials allow sinks to be made of the same plastic material as the countertop. These sinks can then easily be glued to the underside of the countertop material and the joint sanded flat, creating the usual invisible joint and completely eliminating any dirt-catching seam between the sink and the countertop. In a similar fashion, for stainless steel, a sink may be welded into the countertop; the joint is then ground to create a finished, concealed appearance.

A Belfast sink is a type of Butler sink with a weir overflow. Butler's sinks are large ceramic sinks with a traditional appearance, often set under work surfaces.

A farmer's sink is a deep sink that has a finished front. Set onto a countertop, the finished front of the sink remains exposed. This style of sink requires very little "reach-over" to access the sink.

A vessel sink is a free-standing sink, generally finished and decorated on all sides, that sits directly on the surface of the furniture on which it is mounted. These sinks have become increasingly popular with bathroom designers because of the large range of materials, styles and finishes which they can show to good advantage.

Ceramic basin construction

Pottery is made by a blend of clays, fillers and fluxes being fused together during the firing process. There are high fire clays and glazes which are heated to over 2200f and are extreamly resistant to fading, staining, burning, scratching and acid attack. Low fire clays, fired below 2200f, most often used by large commerical manufactors and third world producers, while durable, are suseptable to scratching and wear over time. The clay body is first bisqued to about 1900f. In the second firing a white or coloured glaze is applied and is melted by heat which chemically and physically fuses the glass (glaze) to the clay body during the same firing process. Due to the firing process and natural clays used, it is normal for the product to vary in size and shape, and +/- 5mm is normal.

Accessories

Some public restrooms feature "automatic sinks", which use a motion-sensing valve to detect the user's hands moving beneath the tap. They then turn the water on.

Sinks, especially those made of stainless steel, can be fitted with an integrated drainboard, allowing for the draining of washed dishes.

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